MODELLING  IN 
PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 


WALTER    SARGENT 


MODELLING     IN 
PUBLIC    SCHOOLS 


BY 

WALTER  SARGENT 

DIRECTOR    OP    DRAWING    AND    MANUAL 
TRAINING  IN   BOSTON    PUBLIC   SCHOOLS 


J.    L.    HAMMETT    COMPANY 

BOSTON  NEW   YORK 


. 


Copyright,  1909,  by 
J.  L.  HAMMETT  COMPANY 


TV  Plimpton  Press  Norwood  Mass.  U3.A. 


INTRODUCTION 


AMONG  the  manual  occupations  which  are  of  value 
in  training  the  mind  to  think  definitely  in  terms  of 
form,  and  the  hands  to  express  readily 
the  ideas  of  the  mind,  modelling  in 
plastic  material  is  one  of  the  most 
effective. 

A  clear  understanding  of  form  lies 
at  the  foundation  of  progress  in  most 
of  the  fine  and  industrial  arts.  This 
understanding  is  gained  most  surely 
and  quickly  when  the  student  shapes 
form  with  his  own  hands.  This  knowl- 

Boy  Modelling. 

edge  develops  power  to  draw  because 
it  gives  the  sense  of  construction  which  must  exist  if 
a  drawing  in  two  dimensions  is  to  represent  an 
object  which  exists  in  three. 

Modelling  in  the  round  is  representation  in  three 
dimensions  and  closely  related  to  the  actual  object. 
It  naturally  precedes  drawing,  which  is  representation 
of  three  dimensions  in  terms  of  only  two.  Modelling, 
therefore,  is  the  most  effective  training  known  for 
developing  ability  to  understand  and  delineate  form. 
Modelling  in  the  round  is  drawing  in  three  dimensions. 
Young  children  who  at  first  show  no  aptitude  or  lik- 
ing for  drawing  usually  undertake  modelling  with 
confidence  and  enthusiasm.  Later  they  can  trans- 


437842 


4  MODELLING   IN   PUBLIC  SCHOOLS. 

late  the  rotih'd  into  bas-relief  and  this  affords  a  natural 
step  between  modelling  in  the  round  and  drawing 
upon  paper.  For  example,  a  boy  who  cannot  draw  an 
Indian  canoe  from  a  small  model  can  usually  shape 
one  in  the  round  and  then  in  relief.  After  these  steps 
he  can  almost  always  draw  it  with  fair  success. 

Modelling  aids  constructive  work  by  developing 
ability  to  visualize  forms  and  to  see  in  imagination 
the  finished  whole  wThich  must  be  conceived  more  or 
less  completely  before  working  drawings  and  plans 
are  made. 

Modelling  has  the  great  advantage  of  requiring 
the  use  of  both  hands  at  the  same  time.  Thus  the 
right  and  left  hand,  continually  used  together,  become 
almost  equally  skilful  in  shaping  forms.  This  sym- 
metrical development  is  valuable. 

No  efforts  are  required  to  awaken  the  interest  of 
the  children  in  modelling,  for  it  appeals  to  a  universal 
constructive  instinct.  Plastic  material  is  responsive 
and  the  effect  of  each  touch  is  immediately  apparent. 
It  therefore  appeals  to  the  youngest  children  as  strongly 
as  to  those  who  are  more  mature. 


EQUIPMENT 

NOTWITHSTANDING  its  recognized  value,  modelling 
has  not  been  so  widely  adopted  in  schools  as  its  advan- 
tages would  seem  to  justify.  This  is  partly  because 
clay,  the  most  available  material,  requires  so  much 
attention  and  equipment  to  keep  it  in  workable  con- 
dition. The  new  plastic  materials  now  obtainable 
are  always  ready  for  use  and  promise  to  make  model- 
ling possible  in  schools  where  the  use  of  clay  is  out  of 
the  question.  Equipment  and  time  required  for 
preparation  are  reduced  to  the  minimum  and  frequent 
lessons  are  possible. 

The  initial  cost  of  manufactured  plastic  materials 
is  much  greater  than  that  of  clay,  but  these  materials 
if  given  proper  care  are  practically  indestructible  and 
always  ready  for  use.  Most  of  these  lay  claim  to 
trustworthy  testimonials  to  the  effect  that  they  are 
antiseptic  and  that  no  danger  arises  from  repeated 
use.  From  two  to  five  pounds  are  sufficient  to  supply 
a  room  of  thirty-five  children.  The  amount  neces- 
sary depends  somewhat  on  the  age  of  the  children, 
less  being  required  for  younger  pupils  than  for  older. 

Modelling  material  may  be  kept  in  a  lump,  and 
cut  into  the  necessary  number  of  pieces  with  a  knife. 
It  may  then  be  distributed  and  used  directly  upon 
the  desk  top  without  harm  to  the  desk  if  the  top  is 


6  MODELLING   IN   PUBLIC   SCHOOLS 

thoroughly  wiped  with  a  cloth  afterwards.  This  way 
of  using  it  is  especially  adapted  for  primary  grades. 

In  these  grades,  there  is  little  desire  on  the  part  of 
the  children  to  keep  the  results  or  to  work  for  more 
than  one  period  on  a  single  piece  of  modelling.  The 
interest  in  the  work  arises  from  the  manual  activity 
exercised  in  moulding  the  forms. 

In  the  upper  grades  where  it  is  desirable  to  spend 
several  periods  on  one  problem  it  is  necessary  to 
provide  small  boards  on  which  work  may  be  kept. 
Boards  9J  x  12  J  inches  painted  gray  or  varnished,  are 
most  serviceable.  The  oiled  cardboard  manufactured 
for  this  purpose  is  also  excellent.  Unpainted  boards 
or  unprepared  cardboards  should  not  be  used,  as  they 
are  likely  to  absorb  the  medium  with  which  the  ma- 
terial is  mixed  and  soon  make  it  dry  and  difficult  to 
handle.  The  boards  may  be  piled  one  upon  another 
in  the  closet  with  a  little  modelling  material  at  the 
corners  to  keep  them  apart  and  protect  the  work. 
The  most  convenient  means  of  storage,  however,  is  a 
case  with  side  strips  on  which  to  slide  the  boards  into 
place.  If  modelling  is  carried  on  during  only  a  part 
of  the  year,  the  case  may  be  moved  into  another  build- 
ing when  work  in  one  place  is  finished.  Thus  one 
equipment  may  be  made  to  serve  two  or  three  build- 
ings. If  a  few  extra  boards  are  provided  some  of  the 
best  work  may  be  kept  for  exhibition.  Usually  some 
one  can  be  found  who  will  cast  in  plaster  a  few  of  the 
best  specimens  of  modelling.  Two  or  three  children 
in  upper  grades  may  be  shown  how  to  do  casting,  and 
soon  become  sufficiently  proficient  to  be  allowed  to 
take  examples  of  work  home  and  make  the  plaster 


MODELLING   IN   PUBLIC   SCHOOLS  7 

casts  there.  For  directions  for  making  simple  plaster 
casts,  see  page  28. 

The  pupil's  fingers  are  the  best  tools  for  most  of 
the  work.  A  simple  wooden  modelling  tool,  pointed 
at  one  end  and  flat  at  the  other,  may  be  easily  whittled 
out  and  will  serve  for  nearly  all  work  which  cannot 
be  done  with  the  fingers. 

A  tool  with  a  wire  loop  in  the  end  is  also  valuable. 
Fig.  1. 


FIG.  1.  —  Modelling  Tools. 


PLAN  OF  WORK 

PRIMARY  GRADES.  —  First  to  third  year  in  school. 
For  occupational  work  in  lower  grades,  modelling  is 
especially  valuable.  The  children  seldom  tire  of  it. 
Their  enthusiasm  grows  with  experience.  Both  imag- 
ination and  expression  are  stimulated.  While  children 
model,  following  their  own  fancies,  their  ideas,  instead 
of  being  exhausted,  develop  new  activity. 

Small  children  usually  become  tired  of  any  one 
occupation  after  a  few  minutes.  The  opposite  is 
almost  always  true  when  they  are  working  with  plastic 
material.  Even  at  the  end  of  lengthy  periods  their 
requests  are  likely  to  be  for  more  material  in  order 
that  they  may  make  more  things. 


8  MODELLING   IN   PUBLIC   SCHOOLS 

Most  courses  in  modelling  are  based  on  the  idea 
that  children  should  commence  with  abstract  type 
forms,  such  as  the  sphere,  cylinder  and  cube  and  their 
subdivisions,  and  proceed  gradually  from  these  to  the 
more  complex  forms  of  nature  and  ornament  whose 
shapes  are  suggested  by  these  types.  The  advan- 
tages of  the  possibility  which  such  an  orderly  series 
of  steps  offers  to  the  teacher,  for  working  out  a  logical 
system,  are  offset  by  the  fact  that  such  an  order  is 
contrary  to  the  progress  of  the  mental  development 
of  children.  For  them  a  hemisphere  is  not  as  simple 
as  a  bird's  nest  because  the  idea  of  a  bird's  nest  comes 
first.  Moreover,  plastic  material  modelled  with  the 
fingers  is  not  an  appropriate  medium  for  the  expres- 
sion of  that  geometric  accuracy  which  is  the  main 
characteristic  of  type  forms.  Type  forms  are  abstrac- 
tions and  the  interest  of  children  in  them  does  not  last 
long  after  they  have  been  seen  arid  identified.  Their 
interests  are  in  things  with  which  they  deal  in  daily 
experience  in  a  practical  way,  and  their  enthusiasm  is 
put  forth  in  representing  such  things.  In  general 
the  development  of  the  interest  of  young  children  in 
handling  plastic  material  seems  to  be  along  the  fol- 
lowing lines: 

1.  Interest  in  seeing  the  material  change  form  and 
take  shape  in  response  to  the  touch  of  their  fingers. 

2.  Interest  in  expressing  what  is  in  their  minds, 
using  so  many  of  the  facts  of  appearance  as  will  sym- 
bolize what  they  wish  to  express. 

3.  Interest   in   representing   correctly  the   appear- 
ance of  a  particular  object. 

On  the  basis   of  this   order,   free  work,   in  doing 


MODELLING    IN    PUBLIC  SCHOOLS  9 

which  children  are  allowed  to  make  \vhat  they  choose, 
is  perhaps  the  best  possible  way  to  begin  modelling. 
After  the  material  has  been  distributed  for  the  first 
time,  it  is  sometimes  necessary  for  the  teacher  to 
shape  a  few  things  familiar  to  the  children,  such  as  a 
house,  a  bird,  a  nest,  etc.  Before  she  has  finished 
more  than  one  or  two  she  is  likely  to  find  that  the 
children  have  ceased  to  observe  her  and  are  busy  with 
their  own  creations.  From  suggestions  which  one 
receives  from  another  they  will  often  shape  an  endless 
variety  of  things.  At  other  times  when  each  is  intent 
on  his  own  idea,  the  same  object  will  be  reproduced 
many  times,  and  the  result  will  be  a  row  of  birds  or 
trees  or  houses,  etc. 

When  the  children  have  had  some  practice  in  this 
spontaneous  exercise,  and  have  gained  a  little  facility 
in  shaping  the  material,  they  delight  in  it  as  a  new 
means  of  expression  by  which  they  can  present  some 
of  their  ideas  more  adequately  and  effectively  than  by 
words.  After  this,  the  work  can  easily  and  naturally 
be  directed  along  the  line  of  definite  progress  toward 
keener  observation  and  more  accurate  recording  of 
forms,  characteristics  and  textures.  The  following 
suggestions  relate  to  work  during  the  first  three  years 
in  school. 

Small  children  have  confidence  to  undertake  the 
representation  of  almost  anything  that  is  suggested 
to  them  if  it  has  entered  at  all  vividly  into  their 
experiences.  Therefore  subjects  should  be  selected 
because  of  the  definiteness  of  the  impression  they  have 
made  on  the  child's  mind  rather  than  on  account  of 
geometric  simplicity  of  form.  For  example,  a  loco- 


10  MODELLING   IN   PUBLIC   SCHOOLS 

motive  or  an  automobile  is  a  simpler  subject  for  a 
child  to  model  than  is  a  hemisphere  or  square  pyra- 
mid. The  following  are  some  of  the  things  spon- 
taneously attempted  by  a  group  of  children  five  and 
six  years  of  age,  who  were  given  material  and  allowed 
to  model  what  they  wished:  men,  children,  birds, 
birds'  nests,  trees,  houses,  baskets,  wagons,  steam 
rollers,  dogs,  cats,  people  in  action,  etc.  The  results 
were  crude,  but  they  showed  that  the  natural  desire 
of  these  children  was  to  express  what  was  of  most 
interest  to  them  at  the  time.  Such  a  starting-point 
offers  opportunities  for  selection  and  study  of  topics 
which  already  possess  the  incentive  of  interest,  and 
leads  readily  to  close  observation  and  increasingly 
accurate  expression. 

The  following  subjects  for  lessons  are  suggested 
for  the  first  three  years  in  school.  Such  a  list  may  be 
covered  the  first  year  and  repeated  in  each  of  the  other 
two  years,  with  better  results  from  each  new  presenta- 
tion. 

A  SUGGESTIVE  LIST  OF  TOPICS 

I.  Free  expression  of  whatever  the  children  wish, 
in  order  to  develop  familiarity  with  the  material,  and 
facility  in  handling  and  shaping  it. 

II.  Subjects  from  nature  and  from  pictures:  ani- 
mals, birds,  trees,  fruits,  flowers,  etc.     Small  children 
appear  to  develop  ability  to  represent  such    subjects 
rapidly  when  they  model  from  memory,  with  occasional 
reference  to  the  objects  and  to  pictures  of  them,  and 
to  the  best  work  of  other  pupils.     After  the  first  year, 
pupils  should  work  for  several  lessons   on  some   one 


MODELLING   IN   PUBLIC   SCHOOLS 


11 


animal  or  bird,  studying  it  in  different  ways;  for  ex- 
ample, a  mouse  or  rabbit. 

1.  See  the  animal  or  a  good  cast  or  picture.  Model 
from  memory,  compare  with  the  original,  see  what 
the  others  have  done,  and  try  again. 


FIG.  2. —The  Mouse. 

2.  Study  particularly  some  detail,  as  the  head  and 
ears,  model  the  whole,  trying  to  make  a  better  repre- 
sentation   of    the    part    studied.     Compare    with    the 
original.     Observe    other    parts,    see    what    others    in 
the  class  have  done,  and  model  again. 

3.  A   demonstration   lesson   in   which   the   teacher 
builds  up  a  form  step  by  step  in  full  view  of  the  chil- 
dren, and  they  follow,  reproducing  each  step  as  it  is 
shown  them.      (Fig.   2.) 


12  MODELLING   IN   PUBLIC    SCHOOLS 

4.  Represent  some  action  of  the  animal,  as  eat- 
ing or  running,  or  represent  a  group  of  two  or  three 
together.  This  repetition  of  a  topic  till  it  is  well 
understood,  and  where  each  lesson  presents  some  new 
element  of  interest,  is  especially  valuable  for  the  chil- 
dren after  the  first  year. 

Common  objects,  toys,  houses,  carts,  boats,  etc., 
should  be  studied  in  a  manner  similar  to  that  suggested 
for  nature  forms. 

III.  Illustrative  topics,  games,  occupations,  inci- 
dents, etc.  The  children  should  be  allowed  to  talk 
these  over  as  they  work.  From  their  descriptions  it 
will  be  seen  that  every  shape  they  make  has  a  mean- 
ing for  them,  however  unintelligible  it  may  appear  to 
others. 

It  is  of  the  greatest  importance  that  the  results 
obtained  by  young  children  should  be  judged  by  an 
appropriate  standard.  In  the  beginning,  facility  in 
expressing  ideas,  even  though  the  results  are  crude 
and  inaccurate,  is  of  more  value  than  the  correct 
reproduction  of  given  forms.  The  latter  should  be 
encouraged,  however.  Under  the  right  guidance,  the 
child's  interest  will  be  transferred  from  mere  activity 
in  production  to  the  quality  of  the  thing  produced. 
It  should  be  remembered,  however,  that  this  trans- 
ference is  as  much  the  natural  outcome  of  increasing 
maturity  as  it  is  the  fruit  of  skilful  teaching.  Both 
factors  are  necessary  and  the  desired  results  should 
not  be  expected  too  soon.  Each  year  the  children 
should  learn  by  repeated  exercises  and  study  to  model 
a  few  things  well.  Such  things  constitute  an  increasing 
vocabulary  of  forms  which  can  be  used  and  which 


MODELLING    IN    PUBLIC    SCHOOLS 


13 


add  to  the  study  of  new  forms  the  confidence  attained 
by  past  success. 

Modelling  is  drawing  in  three  dimensions  and  the 
best  results  often  come  when  modelling  and  drawing 
proceed  together.  When  children  in  the  modelling 
class  shape  in  the  round  what  they  afterwards  draw, 


FIG.  3.  —  Puritan  and  Wild  Turkey. 

each  means  of  expression  strengthens  the  other.  For 
a  large  part  of  the  year  the  same  outlines  of  lessons 
may  serve  perfectly  well  for  both  studies,  to  their 
mutual  advantage.  Language  work  gives  suggestions 
for  and  is  helped  by  the  modelling.  Young  children 
show  great  ingenuity  and  imagination  in  expressing 
ideas  gained  from  descriptions  and  stories. 

Children  also  gain  much  ability  in  expressing  form 


14  MODELLING   IN   PUBLIC   SCHOOLS 

by  modelling  from  pictures.     It  is  then  necessary  for 
them  to  translate  light  and  shade  into  actual  relief. 

(Fig.  3.) 


MODELLING  IN  THE  UPPER   GRADES 

FOURTH    TO    EIGHTH    YEAR    IN    SCHOOL 

INTEREST  in  modelling  appears  to  increase  as 
children  grow  older  and  develop  more  ability  to  repre- 
sent their  ideas  and  observations.  Teachers  report 
that  there  is  no  other  lesson  period  of  such  quietness 
and  application  as  that  devoted  to  modelling.  Be- 
cause of  this  interest,  the  difficulty  of  handling  large 
classes  is  reduced  to  the  minimum. 

The  children  should  learn  how  to  lay  a  background 
upon  the  boards,  pressing  out  the  material  with  their 
thumbs  till  it  is  evenly  distributed  over  the  surface. 
The  background  should  be  about  as  thin  as  cardboard. 
Upon  this  the  figures  can  be  placed  if  they  are  modelled 
in  the  round.  If  they  are  to  be  in  relief,  they  should 
be  sketched  upon  the  background  with  a  pointed  stick 
and  then  built  up  by  the  addition  of  more  material 
and  shaped  to  the  desired  form.  An  occasional 
demonstration  lesson  in  which  the  children  follow  the 
teacher  one  step  at  a  time  as  he  builds  up  a  form  is 
helpful.  The  most  valuable  instruction  in  technique 
however,  is  usually  given  incidentally.  Children 
readily  imitate  ways  of  doing  things  while  formal 
instruction  as  to  how  to  do  them  is  often  a  waste  of 
time.  The  most  effectual  way  of  developing  right 
habits  of  handling  plastic  material  is  to  awaken  a 
clear  idea  of  the  shape  desired  and  let  it  act  directly 


MODELLING   IN   PUBLIC   SCHOOLS  15 

as  stimulus.  Whatever  additional  technical  instruc- 
tion is  necessary  can  easily  be  given  incidentally  as 
the  needs  of  the  lesson  suggest.  The  following  gen- 
eral divisions  of  the  subject  include  work  appropriate 
for  pupils  from  nine  to  fourteen  years  of  age. 

I.  MODELLING    FROM    OBJECTS.  -  -  Representation 
of  the  shape  and  characteristics  of  particular  objects 
present  at  the  time.     This  develops  close  observation 
of  the  facts  at  hand. 

II.  MODELLING  FROM  MEMORY.  -  -  Representation 
from  what  can  be  recalled  of  objects   and  incidents 
that  have  been  seen  and  which  may  require  repeated 
reference  to  the  original  or  similar  objects  to  verify 
results   or  secure   more    data.     This    develops    power 
to  memorize  and  visualize  form. 

III.  MODELLING  FROM  IMAGINATION.  -  -  Represen- 
tation of  objects  or  incidents  about  which  the  pupils 
have  heard  or  read,  or  with  the  details  of  which  they 
are  sufficiently  familiar  so  they  can  build  up  their  own 
versions.     This  develops  constructive  imagination. 

IV.  DESIGN. 

The  following  general  order  of  lessons  for  these 
topics  has  proved  successful. 

I.  Modelling  directly  from  objects,  such  as  toys, 
fruits,  leaves,  flowers,  or  anything  that  may  be  suitable; 
for  example,  an  apple  modelled  in  the  round. 

(a)  Model  the  apple  roughly,  studying  its  general 
shape  and  proportions. 

(6)  Study  characteristics  of  shape  which  are  deter- 
mined by  the  kind  of  apple  and  which  mark  it  as  that 
kind,  e.g.,  Baldwin,  Russet,  Greening,  etc.,  and  also 
the  individual  features  of  the  particular  apple,  its 
creases,  hollows,  stem,  etc. 


16 


MODELLING   IN    PUBLIC   SCHOOLS 


(c)  Complete  the  modelling,  making  as  accurate 
a  portrait  of  the  particular  apple  as  possible.  Show 
the  texture  of  the  surface  and  details  of  shape. 

If  the  object,  for  example  a  leaf,  is  to  be  modelled 


FIG.  4.  —  Holly  Plant. 

in  relief,  it  should  be  laid  in  a  position  like  that  in 
which  it  is  to  be  represented.  The  shape  should  then 
be  drawn  upon  the  thin  prepared  background  and  the 
form  built  up  so  as  to  show  heights  and  surfaces  and 
general  shape  corresponding  to  those  of  the  real  leaf. 
The  details  of  form  may  then  be  carried  as  far  as 
desired.  (Figs.  4  and  5.) 

If  children  spend  too  much  time  over  small  details, 
some  practice  in  rapidly  suggesting  the  general  form 
of  things,  within  a  limited  time,  will  be  found  helpful  in 


MODELLING   IN   PUBLIC    SCHOOLS 


17 


developing  vigor  of  handling  and  an  appreciation  of  the 
essential  elements.  Allow  the  children  only  a  short  time, 
perhaps  four  minutes,  in  which  to  represent  as  much 


FIG.  5.  —  Flower. 

as  they  can  of  the  appearance  of  a  leaf,  then  another 
equal  length  of  time  for  another  leaf  of  different  size 
or  form.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  work  is  too  vague 
and  crude,  practice  in  exact  representation  of  a  part 
of  an  object  will  help  to  give  definiteness  and  precision 


18 


MODELLING   IN    PUBLIC    SCHOOLS. 


to  the  work.  The  best  results  are  obtained  when 
rapid  work  in  general  shapes  is  balanced  by  careful 
study  of  details.  After  the  older  children  have  repre- 
sented the  general  form  of  a  leaf  and  have  worked 
out  the  details  as  well  as  they  are  able,  they  may 


II 


• 


FIG.  6.  —  Leaf  Impressions. 

often  be  awakened  to  better  appreciation  of  its  struc- 
ture and  the  refinement  of  its  outline,  and  receive  an 
incentive  for  more  careful  work  upon  their  own  model, 
by  taking  impressions  of  leaves  like  those  they  are 
modelling. 

This  is  done  as  follows  (see  Fig.  6). 

Prepare  a  flat  surface  of  modelling  material,  mak- 
ing it  very  smooth  by  pressing  it  out  with  the  fingers, 


MODELLING   IN   PUBLIC    SCHOOLS 


19 


placing  a  thin  sheet  of  paper  upon  it  and  rolling  it  out 
with  a  roller  or  rubbing  it;  then  polish  with  the  fingers. 
Place  upon  the  surface  a  leaf  or  spray  and  press  it 
gently  into  the  material.  Thick,  heavy  leaves  give 
the  best  impressions.  Place  upon  this  a  piece  of 


FIG.  7.  —  Common  Objects. 

paper  or  cloth  and  press  and  rub  over  the  whole. 
When  the  leaves  are  removed  their  impression  will 
be  left  with  each  detail  clearly  defined.  Plaster  casts 
may  easily  be  made  from  these  leaf  impressions. 
Children  will  learn  much  regarding  the  exact  shapes 
of  leaves  by  carefully  cutting  away  the  material  around 
the  impressions  and  leaving  the  shape  in  relief.  This 
necessitates  following  the  form  exactly.  Actually  to 


20  MODELLING   IN   PUBLIC   SCHOOLS 

follow  a  form  with  the  hand  gives  a  clearer  idea  of  its 
structure  than  simply  to  look  at  it. 

Common  objects,  such  as  implements,  utensils,  and 
furniture,  are  subjects  for  representation  which  are 
always  of  interest  to  the  children.  (Fig  7.) 

Animals  and  birds  are  suitable  forms  to  model. 
They  are  full  of  interest  to  the  children  and  give  oppor- 
tunity for  valuable  practice  in  expressing  action,  pose, 
and  vitality.  Excellent  casts  of  animal  forms  are 
available  at  reasonable  prices  and  are  appropriate 
ornaments  for  schoolrooms  apart  from  their  value 
as  models.  Among  the  best  of  these  are  the  animals 
and  birds  by  Barye,  Fremiet,  and  others.  The  list  of 
these  casts  includes  rabbits,  geese,  poultry,  elephants, 
bears,  horses,  lions,  tigers,  etc.  These  forms  are 
exquisitely  modelled  and  are  full  of  action.  It  is 
excellent  practice  to  let  lessons  in  modelling  from  such 
casts  be  followed  immediately  by  representation  of 
the  same  thing  from  memory,  or  from  nature  if  the 
living  animal  is  available. 

Some  modelling  directly  from  objects  in  order  to 
represent  particular  forms  with  accuracy  is  always 
to  be  desired.  Its  relative  value  to  young  children, 
in  comparison  with  work  from  memory  and  imagina- 
tion, has,  however,  often  been  overestimated.  Its  value 
in  primary  grades  is  small,  but  increases  with  advancing 
maturity.  The  number  of  lessons  which  can  with 
profit  be  devoted  to  a  single  object  also  increases  with 
the  age  and  development  of  the  children.  Well-chosen 
casts  which  show  how  sculptors  handle  plastic  material 
are  always  excellent  subjects  from  which  to  work. 
II.  Modelling  from  memory  such  forms  as  have 


MODELLING   IN    PUBLIC    SCHOOLS  21 

been  previously  modelled  directly  from  objects:  also 
things  which  are  not  at  hand  but  seen  occasionally, 
such  as  particular  buildings  and  localities,  ships  and 
vehicles,  shapes  of  trees,  etc,  in  relief  and  in  the 
round;  for  example,  modelling  in  relief  from  mem- 
ory a  certain  building  with  which  the  children  are 
familiar. 


FIG.  8.  —  Horse. 

(a)  Discuss   with  the  children  the   point  of  view 
from  which  the  building  is  to  be  represented,  and  have 
them  see  it  from  that  point  before  the  lesson. 

Sketch  the  building  upon  the  prepared  background 
and  model  the  general  shape  and  proportions.  Let 
the  pupils  compare  and  discuss  results. 

(b)  Before   the   next   lesson   observe   the   building 
again  and  make  sketches  to  use  as  data.     The  num- 
ber of  lessons    which    may   \vell  be  spent  upon   one 
object  can  be  judged  by  the  interest  of  the  children 
in  gathering  additional  details  and  applying  these  to 
the  perfecting  of  their  model.     Such  training  develops 


22  MODELLING   IN    PUBLIC    SCHOOLS 

ability   to    image    form    clearly  and    retain    it    in    the 
memory. 

The  advantage  of  studying  and  reproducing  maps 
in  this  way  is  readily  apparent.  The  resulting  knowl- 
edge is  more  permanent  than  when  the  modelling 
is  made  always  with  the  map  in  sight.  Modelling 
maps  of  familiar  localities  where  the  proportions  of 
parts  may  be  observed  and  estimated  several  times 


FIG.  9.  — Relief  Map. 

before  the  work  is  completed  gives  excellent  training 
to  the  sense  of  scale  and  relative  proportions.  (Fig  9.) 
Street  maps  of  well-known  localities  may  be  made 
by  indicating  some  starting-point  as  the  schoolhouse 
or  the  child's  home  and  gradually  extending  the  routes 
therefrom.  These  may  be  added  to,  reshaped  and 
brought  into  proper  proportions  and  the  buildings 
and  trees  indicated.  If  such  maps  are  made  on  card- 
board or  paper  they  will  not  monopolize  the  boards 
and  may  be  kept  and  worked  on  for  some  time.  Under 


MODELLING   IN   PUBLIC   SCHOOLS  23 

skilful  instruction,  interest  in  estimating  distances 
and  gathering  information  which  may  be  used  in  per- 
fecting the  maps  increases.  Often  groups  of  children 
work  on  different  maps,  each  group  studying  some 


. 
FIG.  10. —The  Ship. 


particular    locality.     In    modelling,    altitudes    as    well 
as  areas  may  be  represented. 

Progressive  study  of  some  topic  such  as  boats  or 
vehicles  is  of  great  value.  The  interest  of  the  children 
in  different  forms  of  construction  and  in  various 
methods  of  representing  certain  effects,  such  as  the 
varying  appearances  of  the  surface  of  water,  is  aroused. 
An  area  may  be  made  to  represent  a  bay,  and  in  this 
the  children  may  place  models  of  different  craft  they 


24  MODELLING    IN    PUBLIC    SCHOOLS 

have  observed;  or,  on  a  roadway,  they  may  put  repre- 
sentations of  all  sorts  of  vehicles. 

III.  Modelling  from  descriptions  or  imagination 
such  subjects  as  occupations,  games,  incidents;  for 
example,  The  Blacksmith,  The  Fisherman,  The  Car- 


FIG.  11.  —  Circus. 

penter,  A  Rainy  Day,  The  Circus,  A  Street  Scene, 
Indian  Life,  The  Esquimaux,  Mound  Builders,  Ships 
of  Columbus,  The  Vikings,  Santa  Claus,  etc.,  etc. 
An  interest  in  and  a  vivid  idea  of  the  subject,  gained  by 
recent  experience  or  study,  are  requisites  for  successful 
work.  With  these  as  a  stimulus  the  pupils  will  model 
the  subject  with  surprising  detail  and  variety  of  ex- 
pression. Free  use  of  pictures,  descriptions,  and  sto- 


MODELLING   IN    PUBLIC    SCHOOLS 


26  MODELLING   IN   PUBLIC   SCHOOLS 

ries,  and  if  possible  renewed  experiences,  will  furnish 
material  and  suggestions  for  perfection  of  the  work. 
In  order  to  prevent  the  imaginative  work  from  becom- 
ing careless  regarding  the  correct  rendering  of  form 
and  structure,  it  is  important  that  it  be  taken  in  con- 
nection writh  careful  work  from  objects.  Usually  the 
subject  itself  will  furnish  material  for  this.  For 
example,  in  a  series  of  lessons  on  the  Esquimaux,  a 
lesson  on  the  careful  representation  from  an  object, 
model,  or  picture  of  something  included  in  the  scene, 
such  as  a  sledge,  harpoon,  dog,  etc.,  will  give  the 
needed  facts. 

If  the  subject  is  carried  on  by  groups  of  children, 
where  four  or  five  work  together  on  one  scene,  each 
may  make  a  special  study  of  a  particular  object  and 
collect  material  for  it. 

IV.  Design.  -  -  The  subjects  chosen  should  be  such 
as  are  suitable  to  be  worked  out  first  in  plastic  ma- 
terial, to  be  kept  in  that  material  or  to  be  reproduced 
in  wood,  stone,  metal,  etc.  Appropriate  designs  are 
these  for  pottery,  tiles,  tablets,  monograms,  seals, 
wood  or  stone  carving,  etc.  Good  design  is  something 
more  than  the  aggregation  and  symmetrical  arrange- 
ment of  random  shapes,  and  it  is  almost  never  the 
spontaneous  product  of  an  untrained  mind.  It  is 
an  evolution  from  ideas  and  images  of  good  form 
gathered  from  many  sources.  The  sort  of  originality 
that  results  from  the  attempts  of  an  uninformed  mind 
to  produce  design  is  of  little  value  to  the  producer. 
A  background  of  ideas  is  not  a  hindrance  to  progressive 
originality.  When  undertaking  to  design  a  thing 
children  should  be  shown  excellent  examples  of  design 


MODELLING   IN   PUBLIC   SCHOOLS  27 

for  that  sort  of  thing  and  should  be  encouraged  to 
find  and  collect  illustrations.  The  presence  of  a  single 
example  at  the  time  of  a  lesson  would  probably  influ- 
ence toward  a  habit  of  copying,  while  the  previous  col- 
lecting of  many  examples,  followed  by  the  selection  of 
the  best,  awakens  ideas  and  exercises  the  sort  of  judg- 
ment that  aids  invention.  The  problem  of  producing  a 
given  design  is  greatly  simplified  by  limiting  it  to  certain 
elements.  For  example,  in  pottery  the  shape  of  the  jar 
or  vase  is  in  itself  a  sufficient  problem.  If  more  is  de- 
sired, simple  lines  or  borders  which  follow  the  suggestions 
offered  by  the  form  are  all  that  should  be  attempted 
by  the  beginners.  (Fig  13.)  The  addition  of  ex- 
traneous matter  such  as  flower  or  animal  forms  applied 
to  but  not  suggested  by  the  surface  undermines  taste 
and  leads  children  to  mistake  superficial  attraction  for 
beauty.  The  same  principle  should  apply  to  design- 
ing of  tiles,  tablets,  etc. 

The  following  steps  are  suggested  for  the  first  de- 
sign for  a  tile.  Discuss  the  use  of  tiles,  show  good 
examples,  and  decide  upon  the  most  appropriate  size. 
Limit  the  amount  of  decoration  to  one  element  of 
ornamentation;  for  example,  a  border  line.  With  sticks 
and  splints,  or  with  drawings ;  decide  how  much  margin 
should  be  allowed  outside  the  border  line.  Experi- 
ment to  see  whether  a  narrow  or  broad  line  looks  best. 
Modify  the  line  at  the  corners  to  make  a  pleasing 
accent  at  these  points.  Work  over  the  suggestions 
thus  obtained  till  this  ornament  is  the  best  for  its  kind 
that  can  be  made  by  the  pupils.  (Fig.  14.) 

In  making  a  tablet  the  first  step  is  to  decide  upon 
suitable  size  and  shape.  Appropriate  spaces  for  the 


28  MODELLING   IN   PUBLIC   SCHOOLS 


FIG.  13.  — Pottery. 


MODELLING   IN   PUBLIC   SCHOOLS  29 

lettering  should  then  be  chosen,  so  that  the  relations 
of  spaces  and  margins  shall  be  pleasing.  The  letters 
should  then  be  spaced  so  as  to  conform  to  the  plan. 
The  steps  suggested  for  lessons  in  design  may  be 
summarized  as  follows: 

1.  Discussion  of  the  size  and  shape  most  appro- 
priate for  the  use  of  the  object. 

2.  Planning   of  the   necessary   parts   so   that   they 
make  as  pleasing  divisions  of  the  whole  shape  as  pos- 
sible. 

3.  Addition  of  such  decoration  as  the  shape  and 
structure  and  use  of  the  object  may  suggest  as  appro- 
priate. 

The  first  two  steps  are  the  most  important.  The 
third  should  not  be  undertaken  till  these  have  con- 
tributed as  much  as  possible.  It  will  be  found  that 
they  offer  by  far  the  greater  opportunities  for  embody- 
ing beauty  in  the  object  and  training  the  taste  of  the 
pupil.  For  instance,  most  of  the  beauty  of  a  lettered 
tablet  consists,  first,  in  the  relation  of  the  masses 
of  printing  and  of  the  margins  to  the  whole  shape, 
and  secondly  in  the  spacing  of  the  words  and  letters 
within  the  block  which  they  occupy.  The  orna- 
mentation of  individual  letters  is  a  secondary  matter 
and  generally  results  in  more  loss  than  profit  to  the 
beginner. 

PLASTER   CASTS 

The  following  directions  are  for  making  casts  of 
forms  in  relief  where  there  is  no  undercutting  to  bind 
the  cast  into  the  mould  and  prevent  it  from  being 
removed  when  the  plaster  has  set. 


MODELLING   IN   PUBLIC    SCHOOLS 


FIG.  14.— Tiles. 


MODELLING   IN   PUBLIC   SCHOOLS  31 

Arrange  strips  of  cardboard  or  flat  boards  on 
edges  upon  the  four  sides  of  the  model  so  as  to  form 
a  frame  within  which  the  plaster  may  be  poured  and 
wrhich  shall  determine  the  edges  of  the  cast.  Make 
the  corners  water-tight.  Modelling  material  serves 
well  for  this  purpose.  Sprinkle  plaster  of  Paris  into 
water  and  stir  till  the  mixture  is  about  the  consistency 
of  cream.  Pour  this  upon  the  model  till  it  is  covered. 
Brush  the  mixture  into  all  details  and  fill  up  the  mould. 
Shake  it  slightly  to  make  sure  that  the  plaster  fills  all 
parts.  Leave  it  to  harden.  All  utensils  should  be 
washed  at  once  before  the  plaster  sets. 

After  an  hour  or  so,  remove  the  edges  and  the 
plaster  may  be  easily  separated  from  the  model.  This 
forms  the  mould. 

To  make  the  cast,  soak  the  mould  if  it  has  become 
very  dry,  brush  it  clean  with  soap  and  water  and 
remove  all  suds  with  a  soft  sponge.  Brush  the  surface 
very  thinly  with  a  little  sweet  oil.  Arrange  the  frame 
about  the  mould.  Pour  in  the  plaster  mixed  thin  and 
let  it  harden.  When  it  has  set,  insert  a  thin  flat  bladed 
knife  between  the  cast  and  the  mould  at  the  four 
edges.  Tap  it  gently  arid  the  two  will  separate  easily. 
This  method  is  possible  only  when  there  is  no  under- 
cutting to  lock  the  mould  and  the  cast  together.  Waste 
and  piece  moulds  are  usually  too  difficult  to  undertake 
in  elementary  schools.  Often  some  one  may  be  found 
in  the  vicinity  who  will  make  casts  of  different  pieces 
or  will  show  the  older  children  how  to  make  them  at 
home.  The  enthusiasm  and  interest  of  a  class  is 
greatly  increased  by  the  preservation  of  a  few  speci- 
mens. 


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